DEPENDENCY AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA
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DEPENDENCY AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA
ABSTRACT
Our main focus is on dependency and underdevelopment in Africa, and we aim to apply the foregoing to the Nigerian situation. As we all know, dependency is a byproduct of underdevelopment, which is rampant in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular.
It is undeniable that Nigeria is an autonomous country, but this does not manifest in all aspects of society because the superstructures that comprise society and state are dependent on foreign policy and circumstances.
As we can see in this research work, we can see how the African state began its journey to underdevelopment, which disguised itself as development and missionary activities, leaving it in shambles and dependent on foreign influence,
since we were colonised and gave independence, literally we are independent but practically we are dependent on foreign influence because they form the majority of our policy and
Decisions as seen in some of our superstructures such as political, in which we adopted their style of government, economic, in which capitalism has contributed to crippling our economic culture,
which has been influenced by foreigners and degraded our cultural value, and social, which has resulted in the current inferiority complex experienced by Africans whenever they come into contact with whites.
Also, more emphasis is placed on the post-colonial and pre-colonial African economies, as we see how the post-colonial African economy contributed to Africa’s current debt crisis in general,
and Nigeria in particular, and how Nigeria has been subjected to unfair conditions in its quest for foreign aid, which does not translate the reason for its request after it is granted, rather public officers now use these foreign loans for their personal use.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a United Nations agency that claims its purpose is to assist third-world countries in advancing structural adjustment programmes (SAP) aimed at developing African countries to international standards, but in reality, it worsened the African economic problem by cursing Africa rather than curning Africa from its economic slanbles.
This study work is structured into five (5) chapters to facilitate appropriate comprehension and clarification of the nature of dependency and underdevelopment in Africa, with a focus on Nigeria.
In chapter one (1), we look at the basics of producing a research paper, as well as the introduction of our major topic of study or to pie, which is about dependency and underdevelopment in Africa. In Chapter 2 (2), we examine how reliance and underdevelopment emerged in Africa, beginning with the
The arrival of the colonial masters, their preceding motives and missions, and their subsequent motive, all of which reflect the current economic conditions in Africa and Nigeria.
This chapter also discusses the procedures and stages that Africans went through, such as slavery, colonialism, and the emergence of economic saboteurs who exploited African resources for their own selfish objectives.
Chapter three (3) discusses foreign aid as a tactic used by foreign policy or international organisations to undeveloped Africa in order to obtain political and economic favours in the recipient country. This chapter also depicts the character of the African economy as a dependent economy affected by colonialism,
the conditions linked to foreign aid and how it encourages slavery or imperialism, and the extent of mismanagement and misapplication of cash by African public office holders. In chapter four (4), we develop a plan or strategies for reducing dependency.
and underdevelopment as we look at some of the strategies below; such as the strategy of indigenization, which states that indigenous enterprise should be encouraged to foster independent economic development,
the strategy of war against corruption, which is a tool for removing the stigma with the highest infections in the African economy, corruption, and the strategy of neoliberalism, and finally but not least in chapter (5), which some the entire research work up we see ho
First Chapter:
Introduction in General
1.1 Background of The Study
The concept of dependency and underdevelopment calls our attention to the world system’s stagnation, dismal, and marginal position of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Africa, among other continents, is regarded as the world’s poorest continent.
The G8 (Group of Eight) and other international organisations perceive African states as “POOR,” implying that Africa is an inadequate or crippled continent.
The reason for this is that they lend loans to most African states in order for them to meet international development standards, hence keeping Africa indebted to European countries. It is also for the same reason that most international organisations are founded, to help African states development.
Meeting the European standard here implies African states. Looking at Africa, it is clear that the problem of underdevelopment in Africa stems from their incapacity to convert raw materials into finished products, as well as their inability to properly manage and harness their product management and good leadership.
In its history as a human society, the African continent is currently suffering a unique and unparalleled crisis or issues. These issues go beyond previous calculations such as socioeconomic background, balance of payment deficit, poor health statistics, material poverty indebtedness, poor education, disorganised ethnic welfare, rapid capital flight,
alleged law capacity utilisation of materials and other human resources, and so on. The aforementioned difficulties are what keep Africa dependent and underdeveloped as a result of its inability to overcome or adequately address them. This research aims to investigate the
dimensions of dependency and underdevelopment, and gain access to the effect of Africa using Nigeria as a model.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In this analysis, we will look into the majority of the problems that Africa, and Nigeria in particular, is facing, and as the analysis progresses, we will try to understand the reasons for this underdevelopment and try to sort out possible solutions
It is critical to identify factors that contribute to the phenomenon of underdevelopment and dependency in Africa, such as;
i. The rash and excessive desire for foreign loans and aid: This refers to financial help given to third-world countries in order to develop their economies and project them as capable of international trade.
ii. The dominance of import over export trade: This is one of the major problems in African or third-world economies, as they tend to favour foreign goods over indigenous goods, implying exploitation from foreigners to the detriment of indigenous traders.
iii. Political Crisis and Corruption: Africa is familiar with the aforementioned, as it is married to many types of political crises ranging from military coups to party crises, and the worst of all, corruption, which is the end product of every politically unstable nation.
iv. Failure of government policies: Because policies cannot be rigorously adhered to, the problems for which they were created have not yet been fulfilled or resolved, and in most situations, these policies have failed.
Policies enacted are unrelated to a country’s or nation’s development objective.
v. Finally, but not least, poor education: In third-world countries, the education sector is dominated by all manner of malpractices such as bribery, strikes, indefinite closure of schools due to illegality in its operations, unaccredited academic structures, and all other shortcomings, etc.
Against this setting, this study seeks to answer the following questions:
i. Is there a relationship between African reliance and underdevelopment?
ii. Is foreign aid to blame for Africa’s development?
iii. Is accountability and open leadership capable of jeopardising Nigeria’s long-term development?
1.3 Objectives of The Study
The broad goal of this study is to investigate the relationship between reliance and underdevelopment in Nigeria, with a particular focus on;
i. Identifying the relationship between dependency and underdevelopment in Africa
ii. establishing that foreign aid is to blame for Africa’s underdevelopment
iii. Determine whether accountability and transparent leadership can contribute to progress in Nigeria.
1.4 Literature Review
Underdevelopment is a word used in the social sciences to refer to specific sections of the world; it rose to prominence in the late 1940s. Prior to this time, other disparaging adjectives such as “rude” and “barbarous” were used to describe countries in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America, as Meier has pointed out. In the nineteenth century, these labels were abandoned in favour of new ones such as “backward” and “primitive.” If the earlier names were also abandoned in their places in the twentieth century, new terminology such as “underdevelopment” and “developing” were employed.
At the moment, some argue that the terms “less developed”, “developing”, “poor”, and “emerging” should be used instead of “underdeveloped”. The explanation behind this is as follows:
According to Walter Rodney, the suggestion “is to avoid any unpleasantness which may be attached to it,” which can be construed as comprising physical defects as well as mental and moral underdevelopment.
It has also been suggested that the prior pejorative terminology be replaced with less offensive or milder phrases such as “developing” or “emergent.” The west perceives this as a premeditated scheme or ploy to conceal or common flag economic stagnation and exploration in underdeveloped areas.
It is argued, for example, that using terms like “developing” rather than “underdeveloped” gives the false impression that these countries are changing positively and thus developing, and that if the right policies are implemented, these countries will undoubtedly catch up with the world’s developed countries sooner or later.
Given this assumption, Marxist theorists prefer the term “underdevelopment” to describe the world’s less developed regions. The rationale for this is that the term “underdevelopment” is thought to be the finest notion for describing the state of stagnation and exploitation that exists in these cultures. We will now look at what the term “underdevelopment” means.
The Liberal View of Underdevelopment
Liberal intellectuals define underdevelopment as backwardness and primitivism. This explains why they frequently use the terms “agrarian” and “pre-industrial” to refer to underdeveloped areas of the world.
The fact that underdevelopment is a natural or original situation that has existed since fine immorality is implicit in this conception of underdevelopment. In other terms, the bourgeois scholars believe that
Underdevelopment is caused by an internal variable rather than an external force.
Taking the preceding example, it is the alternative explanation that is equally presented to support the view that underdevelopment is a natural phenomenon. According to this viewpoint, development and underdevelopment are natural processes ordered by God.
It is claimed that God has bestowed the developed world with wisdom and a high intelligence quotient (IQ). This explains their superiority and advancement. However, the same God is supposed to have created poor societies in a different way. He forces them to be culturally and psychologically interior, which is blamed for their backwardness.
It is important to note that, while bourgeois experts agree that natural and internal forces create underdevelopment, there is no agreement on which internal variable causes underdevelopment.
truly make it happen. Ragna Nurke’s work “problems of capital accumulation in poor countries; a country is backward and poor because it is poor,” he writes.
This is a vicious cycle of poverty that “runs from low income productivity to real income.”
Richard Eastern line blamed underdevelopment to the elimination, overpopulation, and a lack of motivation on the part of the populace in his own contribution.
Others blame the issue on radical grounds, peasant conservation, and strong loyalties to tribal practices like extended family and the hand fame system.
Because bourgeois scholars attribute underdevelopment to internal sources, how they define it has changed. It can be defined in their opinion.
as a natural state of social, psychological, political, and economic backwardness caused by external and internal factors. This notion encourages liberal scholars to believe that modernity is the only way out of this backwardness. That is economic “Europeanization” or “Americanization” in order to boost growth and advancement.
Marxist Views on Underdevelopment
According to radical thinkers, underdevelopment does not imply backwardness, primitivism, or a lack of underdevelopment. This is because every population has evolved in some way, to a greater or lesser amount.
The claim that it is a natural process to the radical man-made process and a manifestation of a long time of economic and political relationship between these countries and the advanced industrialised regions of the world is also false.
Unlike the bourgeois scholars who asserted that natural and internal factors played no role in the establishment of underdevelopment, radical scholars believe otherwise. Dependency theorists argue that capitalism, which ensures exploitation, causes underdevelopment.
This viewpoint has been substantiated not only scientifically, but also logically and factually through the presentation of tangible evidence. For example, while arguing that underdevelopment is caused by the interaction of internal structures, Gunder Frank stated:
Underdevelopment is a distinct sort of socioeconomic structure caused by the absorption of the society in question into the realm of advanced capitalist countries.
According to radical intellectuals, the same process that supports progress in the industrialised world also deceives development.
Third-world countries suffer from underdevelopment.
To put it another way, the incorporation of third-world countries into the main stream of global capitalism has accelerated third-world growth. Osvaldo Sunkel wonderfully articulates this position when he observes;
We believe that development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same universal process, and that their geographic manifestations are two great polarisations on the one hand, one polarisation of the world between industrial, advanced developed,
and metropolitan countries and underdeveloped, backward, poor, peripheral, and dependent countries, and on the other, polarisation within countries in terms of space, backward, primitive, marginal, and activitarian countries.
Other distinguished Marxist thinkers have expressed similar sentiments. Kay, Jaguaribe, Celso, Rodney, Frank, and others are the most assertive.
Cotten and Dos Santos. They have claimed, with varying degrees of emphasis, that foreign intrusion is one of the causes of underdevelopment.
Based on these principles, they maintained that underdevelopment is a state of backwardness, retardation, and economic distortion caused by the exploration and looting of developing-world economies as a result of their integration into global capitalism.
This feeling of underdevelopment has compelled Rodney to state;
A second, and perhaps more important, feature of modern underdevelopment is that it displays a specific connection of exploitation, namely, exploitation from one country to another. All of the countries labelled “underdeveloping” are exploited by the other, and the underdevelopment that the world is currently worried with is a result of capitalism.
So far in our discussion of the idea of underdevelopment, we have seen that both liberal and radical scholars have used and used the term differently. The way these scholars defined it appears to be influenced by what they believe causes underdevelopment. Whereas liberals believe underdevelopment is a natural and original situation,
Marxist scholars believe it is an artificial process caused by the exploitation of one country by another. Our understanding of underdevelopment should put us on a pedestal to comprehend the concept of the “third world” or “dependency.”
The notion of “dependency,” coined by a Brazilian sociologist Fernando Hennighe Caidoso, aids in connecting both and political analysis, that is, it connects people who benefit from progress with those who make decisions. Dependency simply means that critical economic decisions are not taken by the countries that depend on them.
are “developed,” but by foreigners whose interests are scrupulously preserved. Foreigners utilise their economic strength to buy political authority in the countries into which they expand. Political pressures, imperialist monopolies, or even military involvement may be involved.
This alliance of aliara economic and political power undermines the economies and policies of the dependent countries. Political alliances amongst foreign bourgeois are emerging as a result of this circumstance.
The process is now complete since, just as the metropolis as a whole exploits the colonies, the domestic colonial bourgeois class exploits the rest of the people.
The concept of “dependency” is steeped in uncertainty. This explains why the phrase has so many definitions. As Ian Roxborough points out, dependency was originally characterised as “the observers side of a theory of imperialism.” Implicit in this construction is the idea that imperialism has two faces.
The first symbolises colonial powers, while the others represent “imperialized” or dependent countries. In this sense, dependency theories were thought to have the potential to explain the social and economic processes that happened in “imperialized” or dependent countries.
The postulation of V.I. must have impacted the aforesaid feeling of dependency. On imperialism, Lenin. Lenin, the first scholar to adopt the term “dependency,” argued that capitalism imperialism is a manifestation of the fight of colonial countries for economic and political dominance, as well as the division of the world. He noticed this;
Not only are there two major groups of countries, those that own colonies and the colonies themselves, but there are also several types of dependent countries that are technically independent but are in actuality entangled in a web of financial and diplomatic dependency.
The character of reliance as a logical manifestation of imperialism is simply captured by Lenin’s statement. It does not provide sufficient knowledge for an in-depth operationalization of the notion; numerous definitions have been proposed by scholars.
P. made a contribution. According to O. Brien, “dependent countries are those that lack the capacity for autonomous growth, and they lack this because their structures are dependent.”
This viewpoint appears to be shared by Bill Warren, who claims that;
Dependency is the complex socioeconomic relationship that binds the advanced capitalist countries of the “centre” (the United States of America, Japan, Western Europe) and the Latin American countries of the “periphery” in such a way that the former’s movements and structures decisively determine those of the latter, in a way that is detrimental to the economic progress of Latin American societies.
Dos Santos’ definition of dependency is the most acute and concise. It summarises the key ideas of the most radical scholars in the field.
Dependence, according to Dos Santos, means;
A situation in which one country’s economy is influenced by the growth and expansion of another economy to which the former is subject. When some nations (the dominant ones) can only accomplish this as a reflection of the growth, w
hich can have either a favourable or negative influence on their immediate development, the relationship of interdependence between these and world commerce takes the shape of dependence.
Osvaldo Sunkel expounded on Dos Santos’ position, stating that;
Foreign forces are viewed as integral to the system, with numerous and sometimes concealed or subtle political, financial, economic, technical, and cultural effects within the developing country.
This concept of “dependency” connects the post-war international rise of capitalism to the discriminating nature of the well-known local development process. Access to the means and rewards of development is selective rather than widespread, ensuring a self-perpetuating accumulation of privilege for privileged groups as well as the survival of a marginal class.
Other uses of the term “Dependency” have been simplified by Ian Rox Borough to two main approaches: dependency as a relationship or as a conditioning for circumstances that modify the internal working parts of the dependent social formation.
Regardless of how one views reliance, it indicates a kind of parasitic relationship that exists between highly industrialised countries and less developed countries in a way that promotes the former’s continuing growth to the cost of the latter. An example might be pulled from Nigeria’s oil and gas business, as we can see below.
We spend varying amounts of time and money exporting our natural resources to be refined in developed or industrialised countries; and after being refined in these places, it is imported back to the home nation, where it is distributed and sold at a higher price, regardless of the fact that the old is naturally obtained from this country.
As a result, we now pay more to obtain what is naturally ours, robbing us of the opportunity to enjoy our natural riches. It is now recognised that we exploit our natural resources to maximise the economy and suffer, or rather pay more, to obtain what is rightfully ours.
As previously stated, dependency means that critical economic decisions are made not by the countries being “developed,” but by foreigners whose interests are assiduously guarded; foreigners utilise their economic strength to buy political authority in the country into which they enter. Examples could be collected from the IMF, SAP, World Bank, and so on. This method was embraced by the Western world.
which appeared as a means to develop most African states and Nigeria in particular, thereby learning Nigeria and most African states indebted to these Europe nations and as of which the debts owned by these developing nations,
increases as times goes by and becomes a reary tasks for the developing nations as a result of their incapability to pay backs the idea now leaves Nigeria and Africa unable to attain autonomous growth because their structures are dependent ones.
Dependency can be viewed or defined as an explanation of a state’s economic development in terms of foreign effects, both political and economic, on national development.
1.5 Significance of the Research
The value of this study cannot be overstated because it is critical and adds to existing understanding about the concept (Dependency).
as well as underdevelopment). As a result, continual investigation becomes critical for those who want to understand why Africa or Nigeria is so reliant on the Western world.
Also of considerable relevance is the current Nigerian government’s effort to remove the concept of dependency and underdevelopment from the Nigerian socioeconomic and political system.
Finally, this study is essential to Nigeria and Africa as a whole since it investigates and strives to present alternative solutions on how Nigeria might achieve sustained growth despite her dependent nature.
1.6 Theoretical Structure
This study believes that dependency theory is the best framework for analysis. Dependency theory is a collection of social science theories from both industrialised and developing countries that construct a world.
concept that says that wealthy developed nations in the centre exploit poor underdeveloped governments on the periphery in order to sustain economic growth and remain prosperous.
For example, most African governments have received loans from European countries for development purposes, and these African states have been required to repay these obligations on a regular basis, despite the fact that most African states are unable to pay these payments.
It is now clear that the amount paid on debt servicing for a period of years has exceeded the amount owed by these African states. This is an example of what these Europeans, or rather the theory of dependency, explain by claiming that the wealthy developed nations of the centre use the impoverished underdeveloped nations of the periphery in order to sustain economic growth and remain wealthy.
Dependency theory emerged in the late 1950s under the direction of Raul Presbisch, Director of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America. Presbisch and his colleagues were concerned that economic expansion in advanced industrialised countries did not always result in growth in poorer countries.
Indeed, their research found that economic development in rural areas frequently resulted in serious economic problems in poorer countries. Such a possibility was not anticipated by neoclassical theory, which assumed that economic progress was advantageous to all, even if the gains were not distributed equitably.
Presebisch’s initial explanation for the pattern was simple: poor countries exported primary commodities to the appropriate countries, which then manufactured items from those commodities and sold them back to the poor countries. Manufacturing a useable product always costs more than it saves.
Their major products were used to manufacture those products. For example, in the oil and gas sector in Nigeria, we export our oil to these western countries for refinement, and after it is refined,
we take variable time and money to import back this oil, and at the end of the day, the cost of exportation and importation of these products becomes so high, but no profit is realised after the transaction.
This now boils down to the increase in fuel prices in Nigeria, workers going on strike, and so on. As a result, poorer countries would never earn enough from their export earnings to cover the cost of their exports.
Presbisch’s suggestion was similarly straightforward: poorer countries should begin on an import substitution programme so that they do not need to acquire manufactured goods from richer ones. The poorer countries would continue to sell their principal products on the global market, but their foreign exchange reserves would be depleted.
world are not used to sourcing their producers from other countries.
Three obstacles hampered the implementation of this policy. The first is that the poorer countries’ internal marketplaces were too small to support the economies of scale used by the richer countries to keep their prices low.
The second issue involved the poorer countries’ political will to transition from primary product producers to secondary product producers.
The fourth issue concerned the extent to which poorer countries genuinely controlled their main products, particularly in terms of exporting those products.
These impediments to the import substitution programme prompted others to consider the connection between rich and poor countries in a more innovative and destructive light.
At this point, dependency theory was seen as a viable explanation for the poorer countries’ continuing poverty. The conventional neo-classical approach stated little vertically on this topic except that poorer countries were late in adopting sound economic methods, and that once they mastered the procedures of modern economies, poverty would begin to lessen.
However, Marxist theorists saw chronic poverty as a result of capitalist exploitation. And a new school of thought known as the “word system approach” maintained that poverty was a direct result of the world political economy’s transformation into a fairly rigid division of labour that favoured the rich and penalised the poor.
Recognising Dependency Theory
Debates among liberal reformers (prebisch). Marxists (Andre Gunder Frank) and world system theorists (Waller Stein) were rigorous and intellectually challenging.
Quite difficult. There are still significant differences between the various strains of dependence theories, and it is a fallacy to believe that there is only one unified explanation of dependency.
Nonetheless, there are some essential principles that appear to underpin most dependence theorists’ analyses.
Dependency can be characterised as an explanation of a state’s economic development in terms of foreign effects, both political and economic, on national development plans.
Dependency is also a historical condition that shapes a certain structure of the world economy in such a way that it favours some countries at the expense of others and limits the development potential of the subordinate economies,
a situation in which the economy of a certain group of countries is conditional on the development and expansion of another economy to which their own is subordinate.
An example of this might be traced back to colonial history. These Europeans arrived to Africa and introduced us to cash crops, which led to the moneterization programme, and things were difficult at this point, with people working extremely hard to obtain money.
This monetarization programme has now resulted in a debt crisis as a result of our inability to achieve these criteria, and the debt crisis issue has now resulted in brain drain and poverty in Africa, as well as an increase in the level of our underdevelopment.
With this example, it is clear that reliance is a historical situation that forms a certain structure of the world economy, favouring some countries at the expense of others and limiting the development opportunities of subordinate economies.
Most dependency theorists agree on three elements of these definitions. First, dependency characterises the international system as consisting of two sets of nations, variably defined as
Whether dominant, dependent, center/periphery, or metropolitan/satellite.
The advanced industrialised nations dominate the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Dependent nations are Latin American, African, and Asian countries with low per capita GDPs that rely largely on the export of a simple product for foreign exchange revenues.
Second, both definitions share the idea that external influences are crucial to the economic activity of the dependent states. Multinational firms, international commodities markets, foreign assistance, communications, and any other means by which advanced industrialised countries can represent their economic interests overseas are examples of external influences.
Third, all definitions of dependency show that the relationships between dominant and dependent states are dynamic, as interaction between the two sets of states tends to not only reinforce
but also aggravate the unequal patterns. More broadly, reliance is a deeply embedded historical process that is anchored in the internationalisation of capitalism.
As such, dependence theory explains many nations’ current underdeveloped situations by examining patterns of inter-nation connections and suggesting that inequality among nations is an inherent element of those interactions.
1.6.1 Data Collection Method
The primary mode of data collecting in this research study is the secondary mode, as specified in the research proposal. Data’s secondary mode
The term “collection” refers to the act of visiting libraries and extracting information from journals, newspapers, and books.
1.6.2 Data Analysis Method
Because the secondary mode of data gathering, or rather the non-reactive technique of data collecting, was used, the method of data analysis used here is the qualitative method of data analysis. It is more descriptive in nature.
1.7 Theories
1. In Africa, there is a significant correlation between dependency and underdevelopment.
2. Foreign aid appears to be to blame for Africa’s underdevelopment.
3. Accountability and open leadership are capable of bringing about gender equality in Nigeria.
1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The topic of this study is focused on Africa’s dependent situation, specifically how dependency threatens the economic progress of most African states. The scope of this study also focuses on how to achieve sustainable development despite the dependent nature of Africans, notably Nigeria.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
Too many circumstances posed constraints to this research investigation, and one key issue encountered during this research effort was a lack of funds. This study also has data gathering and management issues.
1.9.1 Conceptual Operationalization
Some political notions will be accepted or rather implemented in relation to the subject in this study, and they are as follows:
Oligarchy: Government by the few, the logically exclusive categories of government by one, the few, or the many that have been widely deployed, but terminology has varied, for example, aristocracy is a form of government by the few,
Aristotle distinguished between rules who govern in their own interests (Oligarchy). Sociologists have asserted that there is an essential link between organisation and oligarchy.
Hegemony: When a social class has authority over others that is not accounted for by coercion or legislation, it is said to be hegemonic, a term derived from the Greek word “hegemony,” which means chieftaincies. Thus, Gramsci saw the bourgeois as hegemonic within capitalist society, believing that their authority was dependent on her.
All organs of society have been infiltrated by bourgeois values.
Elite: A privileged minority, a small group of people within a larger group who have more power, social standing, wealth, or talent than the rest of the group, and the belief that this arrangement is justified by their support.
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