Lack Of Quality Control And Scientific Evidence For The Efficacy And Safety Of Medicinal Plants
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Lack Of Quality Control And Scientific Evidence For The Efficacy And Safety Of Medicinal Plants
Chapter one
Introduction and Literature Review.
Albumin, globulin, total protein, body weight, and glucose are blood tests that provide information on a person’s liver. Albumins are connected with functioning.
These tests can aid in the evaluation and treatment of patients with hepatic dysfunction. They can be used to diagnose liver illness, assess the severity of known liver damage, and monitor therapy response.
Since antiquity, medicinal plants have served as the primary source of traditional herbal medicine for rural populations worldwide. The therapeutic use of plants dates back to the Sumerian and Acadian civilisations in the third millennium BC.
Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 BC), one of the ancient authors who reported medical natural products of plant and animal origin, named around 400 different plant species for medicinal uses (Taylor et al., 2001).
Medicinal plants are those that contain substances that can be utilised for medicinal purposes or are precursors to the manufacture of valuable pharmaceuticals (Abolaji et al., 2007).
Since time immemorial, medicinal plants have served as a source of medicine in almost every society. Over 5,000 plants are known to be used medicinally throughout Africa, although only a few have been described and studied (Taylor et al., 2001).
Concerns have recently been raised about the absence of quality control and scientific data supporting the usefulness and safety of therapeutic herbs. Medicinal plants often include a number of pharmacologically active chemicals that can work alone, additively, or synergistically to promote health (Azaizeh et al. 2003).
1.1.Literature Review
1.1.1. ALBUMIN
The albumins (derived from Latin: albumen) (Haefliger et al., 1989) are a group of globular proteins, the most prevalent of which being serum albumin.
The albumin family includes all proteins that are water-soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and undergo heat denaturation. Albumins are often present in blood plasma and, unlike other blood proteins, are not glycosylated.
Albumin is a protein produced by the liver that can be tested inexpensively and simply. It constitutes the majority of total protein (the remainder being globulin). Chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis, causes a reduction in albumin levels.
It is also reduced in nephritic syndrome, where it is eliminated through the urine. Low albumin can cause oedema because the intravascular oncotic pressure drops below the extravascular space. The reference range is 3.5 to 5.5 g/dl (Sugio et al., 1999).
FUNCTION
Serum albumin is the primary protein in human blood plasma (Mayer et al. 1994). It binds water, cations (such as Ca2+, Na+, and K+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin, thyroxine (T4), and medications (including barbiturates), with the primary purpose of regulating blood colloidal osmotic pressure.
TYPES
Serum Albumin
Serum albumin is the most prevalent blood plasma protein, produced in the liver, and accounts for a considerable part of total plasma protein. Human serum albumin is the human equivalent, accounting for almost half of human plasma protein (Mayer et al., 1994).
Serum albumins help regulate blood volume by keeping the blood compartment’s oncotic pressure (also known as colloid osmotic pressure) stable (Mayer et al., 1994).
They also act as carriers for molecules with low water solubility, isolating their hydrophobic nature, such as lipid soluble hormones, bile salts, unconjugated bilirubin, free fatty acids (apoprotein), calcium, ions (transferrin), and certain drugs such as warfarin, phenobutazone, clofibrate, and phenytoin.
Because of this, it is sometimes referred to as a molecular “taxi”. Drug interactions can occur when medications compete for albumin binding sites, increasing the free fraction of one of the drugs and affecting potency (Gaull et al., 1984).
Specific types include:
Human serum albumin
Low albumin levels (hypoalbuminemia) can be caused by liver illness, nephrotic syndrome, burns, protein-losing enteropathy, malabsorption, starvation, late pregnancy, artefact, genetic changes, or cancer.
High albumin levels (hyperalbuminemia) are nearly often caused by dehydration. In some situations of retinol (Vitamin A) deficiency, the albumin level might rise to above-normal levels (4.9 g/dL). This is because retinol causes cells to swell with water (which is also why excessive Vitamin A is harmful) (Gaull et al., 1984).
The normal range for human serum albumin in adults (> 3 years old) is 3.5 to 5 g/dL. For children under three years old, the typical range is 2.9-5.5 g/dL (Alderson and Bunn, 2011).
Medical uses
There is no evidence that albumin lowers mortality in patients with low blood volume when compared to cheaper options such as normal saline, nor that albumin improves mortality in patients with burns and low albumin levels. As a result, the Cochrane Collaboration warns against using it except in clinical trials (Alderson and Bunn, 2011).
Albumin is a protein produced by the liver. A serum albumin test determines the concentration of this protein in the clear liquid component of the blood.
This test can identify whether a patient has liver or renal illness, or whether the body is not absorbing enough protein.
Albumin facilitates the passage of several tiny molecules through the blood, including bilirubin, calcium, progesterone, and medicines. It prevents blood fluid from seeping into the tissues.
The typical range is 3.4 – 5.4 g/dL (Berk and Korenblat, 2011).
Low serum albumin levels may indicate:
Kidney illnesses.
Liver disease (for example, hepatitis or cirrhosis, which causes ascites)
Decreased blood albumin levels can occur when your body can not get or absorb enough nutrients, such as:
Following weight-loss surgery
Crohn’s disease.
Low protein diets
Sprue-Whipple’s Disease
Increased blood albumin levels could be attributed to:
Dehydration
High protein diet (Pratt, 2010).
1.1.2. BODY WEIGHT
Weight ranges are labelled as overweight, normal, underweight, or obese. Obese and overweight refer to having a higher weight than is healthy for you. Underweight refers to being less than one’s ideal body weight.
Healthy body weight varies by gender and height. For youngsters, it also depends on their age (Pai et al., 2000). A abrupt, unexpected shift in weight can indicate a medical concern. Causes of abrupt weight loss may include:
Thyroid issues.
Cancer
Infectious illnesses.
Digestive illnesses.
Certain medications
Sudden weight gain can be caused by medications, thyroid difficulties, heart failure, or kidney disease. Body weight refers to a person’s bulk or weight (Walpole et al. 2012). Body weight is measured in kilogrammes, a unit of mass, all throughout the world.
Excess or reduced body weight is considered a sign of a person’s health, with body volume measurement adding another dimension by assessing the distribution of body weight (Lubitz et al., 1988).
Total protein
The total protein test determines the total amount of two types of proteins contained in the fluid part of blood. These include albumin and globulin (Landry and Bazari, 2011).
Proteins are essential components of all cells and organs.
Albumin helps to keep fluid from leaking out of blood vessels.
Globulins are key components of the immune system.
The typical total protein range is 6.0 to 8.3 g/dL (grammes per decilitre) (Klein, 2011).
GLUCOSE
Glucose is a carbohydrate and the most common simple sugar in human metabolism. Glucose is known as a simple sugar or a monosaccharide since it is one of the simplest units that exhibit the features of this class of carbohydrates.
Glucose is also known as dextrose. It is one among the key chemicals that provide energy to plants and animals. It can be found in plant sap and in the human bloodstream, where it is known as “blood sugar”. The typical concentration of glucose in the blood is approximately 0.1%, but it rises significantly in diabetics.
Plants produce glucose using solar energy in a process known as photosynthesis. This synthesis occurs in the microscopic energy factories known as chloroplasts found in plant leaves. The chloroplasts absorb solar energy and produce glucose molecules from airborne carbon dioxide and soil water.
BIOSYNTHESIS
In plants and some prokaryotes, glucose is a byproduct of photosynthesis. In mammals and fungi, glucose is produced by the breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis. In plants, starch is the breakdown substrate.
In animals, glucose is produced in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates such as pyruvate, lactate, and glycerol through a process known as gluconeogenesis.
COMMERCIAL
The commercial production of glucose involves the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Starch can be obtained from a variety of crops. Maize, rice, wheat, and cassava are all widely used throughout the world.
Most commercial glucose is found as a component of invert sugar, which is a roughly 1:1 blend of glucose and fructose. Glucose is approximately 75% as sweet as sucrose (table sugar) (Mc Murry and John, 2012).
SOURCE AND ABSORPTION
Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as a single building block (starch and glycogen) or in combination with another monosaccharide (sucrose and lactose) (Ferraris and Ronaldo, 2001).
The pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases break down glucose oligo- and polysaccharides into monosaccharides in the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine.
Other polysaccharides cannot be handled by the human colon and must be broken down with the help of intestinal flora; sucrose (fructose-glucose) and lactose are notable exceptions.
When insulin levels are low or nonexistent, liver cell glycogen can be converted to glucose and returned to the bloodstream; however, muscle cell glycogen cannot be restored to the bloodstream due to enzyme deficiencies. In fat cells, glucose is needed to power reactions that synthesise certain fat types and serve other functions.
Glycogen is the body’s “glucose energy storage” mechanism, because it is far more “space efficient” and less reactive than glucose itself (Ferraris and Ronaldo, 2001).IN HYPOGLYCEMIA
Individuals who have diabetes or other diseases that can cause hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) frequently carry modest amounts of sugar in various ways. Glucose is a regularly used sugar, often in the form of glucose tablets (American Diabetes Association 2010).
Hippocratea Welwitschii
Hippocratea welwitschii oliv is a tropical plant from West Africa. tradomedicine claims that it is effective in the treatment of malaria, epilepsy, and diabetes. Rural residents use it as a chewing stick and traditional herb. Additionally, ladies in Ibibio (Calabar) use it as a fattening agent.
The indigenous of Akwa Ibom state have used the root to treat epilepsy. Phytochemical testing on the powdered root sample using established methods of analysis revealed saponins, alkaloids, phenols, and glycosides.
The (saponins) chemicals operate as natural antibiotics, assisting the body in fighting fungal infections, combating bacteria and viruses, and eliminating some tumour cells, particularly lung and blood malignancies (Barakat et al., 1993).
They also bind blood cholesterol, lowering the risk of heart disease, but the most promising aspect of saponins is their ability to inhibit and destroy cancer cells.
1.2.1. DESCRIPTION
Climber of closed main or mature secondary forest or thickets of secondary scrubs, completely glaborous. Leaves are sub-membranous or length coriaceous, broadly elliptical or obovate, obtusely cuspidate or briefly acuminate, with reticulation that is barely visible, and 2-4 inches long.
1.2.2. CLASSIFICATION
Plantae are the kingdom of plants.
Magnoliophyte phylum.
Magnoliopsida is a class of animals.
Celastrales (49).
Celastraceae (440).
Hippocrates (32,510).
The species is Hippocratea welwitscii (539,756).
1.2.3 Common Names, Language, and Origin
Bittersweet Family English
Manogiegbini Liberia.
Adangmeakladofi Ghana.
Ijan Yoruba
Nyaworo uru Ambombo Efik and Ibibio.
SYNONYM: simicratea welwitschii oliv1.2.4.Geographic Distribution
The plant can be found in Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Tanzania, Uganda, Togo, Guinea, Benin, Ivory Coast, and Nigeria.
1.2.4. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
The phytochemical research revealed that the root of H. Welwitschii includes saponins, alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, and glycosides in variable levels of 1.66 x 10-2, 3.67 x 10-3, 2.64 x 10-2, 3.08 x10-2, and 2.01 x 10-2 ug/g, as well as minerals such as K, Na, Cr, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, Fe, Pb, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, and Se (Poornima & Ravishankar, 2009).
1.2.5. The Economic Importance of Hippocratea Welwitschii
Its phytochemical contents have contributed significantly to the plant’s use in the treatment of various diseases; the presence of saponins aids in the binding of blood cholesterol, thereby reducing heart problems; however, the most exciting and outstanding prospect for saponins is their ability to inhibit and kill cancer cells (Poornima and Ravishankar, 2009).
It has also been claimed that they do so without killing normal cells, which is the method of action for certain cancer-fighting medications. Cancer cells contain higher cholesterol, which inhibits cell growth and division.
Some plant extracts containing alkaloids (dihydrodioscorine) have been shown to cause long-term hypotension and contraction of smooth muscle fibres in the colon when supplied to animals (Poornima and Ravishankar, 2009).
The presence of phenols, saponins, and alkaloids in root samples may give antibacterial and hypoglycemic properties to the plant (Jacob and Burri, 1996). The plant’s root contains phenol, saponins, and alkaloids that are used to cure coughs, dysentery, inflammations, and ringworm (Frankel et al., 1993; Jacob and Burri, 1996).
The mineral makeup of H’s root. Welwitschii are known to perform significant metabolic and physiological roles in living systems (Ujowundu et al., 2010).
Iron, zinc, selenium, and manganese are antioxidants that strengthen the immune system, while magnesium, zinc, and selenium are also known to prevent cardiomyopathy, muscle degeneration, growth retardation, alopecia, dermatitis, immunologic dysfunction, gonadal atrophy, impaired spermatogenesis, congenital malformations, and bleeding disorders (Ujowundu et al., 2010).
1.2.6. LOCAL USE.
Some traditional healers suggest that the plant’s root may treat malaria, typhoid fever, and obesity. It was also said to encourage menstruation (bark of the root), lower blood pressure, and act as an overall body (internal) cleanser.
It is made by boiling the root bark and drinking it, or by grinding it into powder and taking it with perceptible food like palp (akamu) or with tea without milk or sugar.
Side effects occur solely when the extract is taken in excess; the most common side effects include drowning, diarrhoea, and body weakness. However, it has not been demonstrated whether it can cure diabetes.
1.2.7. Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic condition characterised by absolute or relative insulin insufficiency and/or insulin resistance. It is distinguished by hyperglycemia, dyslipidaemia, and protein metabolism, which can result in morbidity and mortality.
None of the antidiabetic medicines could provide long-term glycaemic control without producing serious side effects. In the meantime, medicinal herbs that are efficient in lowering plasma glucose levels with few side effects are widely used as an alternative medication in developing nations.
Hundreds of plants in Africa have been traditionally used to treat and/or control diabetes mellitus. Unfortunately, only a few of these medicinal plants have received scientific validation.
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